Khwarizm

The region of Khwarizm, in modern day Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, endured a turbulent period of change between the third and eighth centuries AD. The fall of the Kushan Empire left it exposed to political struggles, namely, rule by the Hephthalites and their subsequent conflicts with the Sasanians, until the area was conquered by Islamic Arab armies in the late seventh century. Its society and culture thus developed throughout this period in response to outside invasions and frequent social change.